The role of religion in health promotion from a sociological point Essay

The job of religion in wellbeing advancement from a sociological point - Essay Example The World Health Organization (WHO, 1947) characterizes wellbeing as â€Å"a condition of complete physical, mental and social prosperity and not only the nonappearance of sickness or infirmity† (Edlin, et al, 2000). This paper proposes to recognize the advantages and factors identifying with religion in the socialization of people, the advancement of interpersonal organizations, and chances to upgrade the strength of different populaces inside the United States. The comprehensive perspective on wellbeing recognizes the between relatedness of the otherworldly, physical, mental, passionate, social, and ecological elements that add to the general nature of a person’s life. (Edlin, et al, 2000). Socialization might be characterized as the procedure by which an individual learns the methods of a given society or social gathering so he can work inside it. The socialization procedure happens through social connections, subsequently it is a component of social collaboration (Elkin, 1960). Through the components of religion: church participation, support, and so forth, socialization happens. A guideline of theosomatic medication, as expressed by Levin (2001) is that â€Å"regular strict partnership benefits wellbeing by offering bolster that cradles the impacts of pressure and isolation†. In this manner it is seen that by creating social contacts through the congregation or different strict association, the individual can come out of his seclusion and get associated into the strict gathering. Turning into a piece of a gathering gives them a feeling of having a place and security which has positive wellbeing results. From an examination led by Berkman and Syme (1979), for individuals somewhere in the range of sixty and sixty-nine years old, the overall danger of passing on throughout the following nine years was 1.8 occasions more noteworthy for the most segregated men than the hazard for the most associated men. For ladies in this age gathering, those with the least associations had multiple times more serious hazard than those with the most associations.. Studies and examination on Americans’ strict practices

Research and critical reflection - Money doesn’t buy you happiness. Essay Example for Free

Research and basic reflection Money doesn’t get you satisfaction. Article Cash doesn’t get you bliss. Everybody has heard the announcement previously and most investigations of bliss and prosperity by and large concede to it. Notwithstanding, despite the fact that cash doesn't get you bliss it is to a great extent concurred that cash can be an unfortunate obligation. Henceforth, cash can't get you bliss, however it can give you money related security and prosperity. On the off chance that you inquired as to whether they were cheerful most will disclose to you they are not because of living in poor conditions and having unexpected weakness. Their requirement for wellbeing and security exceeds their requirement for pleasant things and assets. So if cash doesn't get you bliss what does get you joy? What are the variables in life that fulfill you? One approach to address this inquiry could be seeing ones prosperity. As such a more profound translation of prosperity is fundamental. While considering the idea of prosperity, there are two significant methodologies, target prosperity, and emotional prosperity. Target prosperity takes a gander at how sound an individual is and the entrance he needs to assets. Abstract prosperity then again takes a gander at the general bliss of an individual. At the same moment it is likewise contended that material prosperity, that is the things we purchase and need, doesn't prompt our general bliss. Thus, cash doesn’t get you joy. (Williams, 2014). Considering this thought cash doesn't get you bliss (Myers Diener, 1995), Kawachi and Kennedy (2002, p.30 - 31) searched out to sum up the principle fixings to joy in one’s life. They noted sex, ethnicity and age barely fulfill you. Or maybe it is the connections and network you have around you that produces levels of satisfaction. Moreover, getting a charge out of one’s work and recreation is profoundly connected with bliss. Then again, one’s riches and salary doesn't have a straight relationship with joy. Some destitute individuals are glad, some rich individuals are troubled and the other way around. In any case, a huge number of individuals over the globe go through huge measure of cash expending things they needn't bother with. I myself succumb to showcasing ploys and expend materialistic things that I don't generally require, yet need since I trust it will make me fit in additional in my locale, or make me more joyful. Individuals follow in vogue patterns and need all the new toys that come out reasoning it will fulfill them. This need of individuals to have decent extravagant things has recently been authored the â€Å"new consumerism†. Some time ago, it implied staying aware of others in your locale, if your neighbor got another glimmer vehicle, you needed to go get one. Be that as it may, with the advancement of television,â and later on the ascent of broad communications, â€Å"new consumerism† implied individuals were currently contending everywhere throughout the globe. Moreover, as we live in a universe of disparity as far as pay and riches, the hole between what we need and what we have to a great extent relies upon our salary. Schor (1998), alluded to this as â€Å"the optimistic gap†. On the off chance that one can't manage the cost of something, he can either be â€Å"unhappy† managing not having that item/need, or he decides to assume obligation so as to bea r the cost of it and have it without further ado; in this way working more to cover the obligation and the cycle proceeds. So in the event that we take a gander at joy as the â€Å"difference between what we have and what we need we out of nowhere become unhappy† (Williams, 2014, p.5). Generally, I concur with the announcement the cash doesn't get you joy. By society’s principles I am certainly not a rich man but rather I see myself as to carry on with a respectably upbeat life; to a great extent because of the way that I am solid, I have old buddies and a caring family. As indicated by a few researchers (Benin Nierstedt, 1985, Inglehart, 1990, Myers, 2000) it is to be sure our social connections that produce the most elevated levels of satisfaction. So, I despite everything expend certain things, materialistic things, and go to specific submits in request to develop my social character. I need things so as to fit in or get acclaim from my companions. As indicated by numerous researchers anyway this doesn't prompt my prosperity yet rather to misery. This moves back to the â€Å"aspirational gap†, in the event that I can't bear to look a specific way or purchase certain things and stay aware of the occasions do I at last become despondent? By and by I might want to state it doesn't concern me, however reflecting back to Schor’s (1998) study, it seems to point toward that path. In that capacity, I do concur with the idea all the more so as many individuals around me become despondent when they can't bear the cost of something they need. Or then again become despondent on the grounds that they strayed into the red because of their superfluous utilizations. Maslow (1943) contrived a hypothesis of inspiration which endeavored to clarify the progressive idea of people’s prosperity. Right off the bat it is our fundamental mental needs like craving and thirst that we need to fulfill. Next, it is our requirements for security and insurance, trailed by our requirement for social bonds and love. The last two stages are ones confidence and self-actualisation. This is a progressive view which implies once a specific level has been fulfilled one looks to fulfill the following until you reach to the top †self actualisation. This will clarify why individuals become despondent when they can't affordâ something †arrive at self-actualisation. In addition, personalities are liquid. I continually expend new patterns, go to new places, and change my propensities to fit society’s standards. Social brain science ascribes this to people’s nature to adjust. One investigation by Asch (1952, refered to in Bond Smith, 1996) shows the inclination of individuals to adjust to the lion's share in any event, when the result is unmistakably off-base. I concur with this as I purchase certain garments and go to specific spots since I need to fit in with my environmental factors. Zaichkowsky (1994) claims that people groups contribution with an item relies upon an individual clear importance of an item dependent on his natural needs and qualities. Henceforth my qualities come from my environmental factors and my requirement for an item originates from my need to fit in to my environmental factors. A great deal of the previously mentioned ideas talked about were first explored after WWII and all through the twentieth century. In any case, as the world is continually advancing and changing do these points of view toward bliss and prosperity despite everything apply today? Have they shown signs of improvement or more terrible? Early examinations demonstrated an expansion in mental scatters and separations all through the late twentieth century, just as the increment need of individuals for greater and better things. An investigation by Helliwell, Layard, and Sachs (2012) found that on normal rich individuals are more joyful than needy individuals. In any case, t hey found that a country’s monetary development doesn't show an expansion in the general satisfaction of its kin. This is essentially because of the way that once individuals arrive at an agreeable/secure degree of salary; further increment of it doesn't create more elevated levels of satisfaction. Additionally, they discovered joblessness is profoundly corresponded with low degrees of prosperity, while being utilized †and happy with your activity †was related with more elevated levels of prosperity. At last, they noted in Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, love and having a place come soon after fundamental physiological and security needs. Obviously, the wellsprings of individual bliss incorporate the arrangement of social cooperations through which people are interconnected.† (p.70). The previously mentioned patterns examined give off an impression of being in accordance with the present province of New Zealand. Helliwell et. al. (2012) discovered New Zealand positioned as the thirteenth most joyful nation on the planet. This was credited because of a low joblessness rate (6.2%), separate from number down (stats.govt.nz), and positioning high on instruction just as opportunity. (Helman, 2013). Be that as it may, when taking a gander at the main 50 most e xtravagant nations on the planet (aneki.com) New Zealand doesn't show up. In any case, it is sheltered to expect that newâ consumerism and the â€Å"aspirational gap† still apply to New Zealand as the nations burning through ($2,578 million) is higher than its GDP ($211,678 million). (stats.govt.nz). It absolutely creates the impression that cash doesn't get you satisfaction. Or maybe being poor is associated with low degrees of prosperity. Cash in itself can give an individual security, however expanded salary doesn't seem to affect by and large joy. Taking a gander at Maslow’s hypothesis, an individual could have all the cash on the planet however in the event that they are separated from everyone else and don't have a caring network of loved ones to impart it to they are quite often going to be troubled. Or maybe, satisfaction is dictated by countless variables with an accentuation on fundamental needs, for example, food and water, just as companionships and having a place with a caring network. Utilization of materialistic items and the yearning for more cash adversely influences our prosperity. References Benin, M.H. what's more, B.C. Nierstedt: 1985, ‘Happiness in single-and double worker families: The impacts of conjugal happiness’, work fulfillment and life cycle, Journal of Marriage and the Family 47, pp. 975â€984. Bond, R. Smith, P. B. (1996). Culture and similarity: a meta-examination of studies utilizing asch’s (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. Mental Bulletin, 119(1), 111â€137. Maslow, Abraham H. 1943 A hypothesis of human inspiration. Mental Review, 50: 370-396. Helliwell, J., Layard, R., Sachs, J. (2012). World Happiness Report. Community for Economic Performance. The Earth Institute Columbia University. Helman, C. (2013). The world’s most joyful (And Saddest) nations. http://www.forbes.com/destinations/christopherhelman/2013/10/29/the-universes most joyful and-saddest-nations 2013/Inglehart, R.: 1990, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ). Myers, D.G.: 2000, ‘The reserves, frie

How to Identify and Analyze Keywords Your Competitors Are Using

How to Identify and Analyze Keywords Your Competitors Are Using A keyword is normally a word or phrase that highlights a topic or passage of significance within your web content. Searchers use different words or strings of words to collect more information from the internet on the topics of their interest. Keywords basically represent the web content and the way people search for that content. The main purpose of keywords is to increase the value of your content both for Google Search Spiders and people.You should add keywords naturally in all the content you write, whether it is the body of a new post or meta description, because they represent the theme of your page. A reader will find it easy to consume the naturally inserted keywords just like the rest of your content. On the other hand, you will turn off your reader if the keywords you use are irritating sales pitches or cause the reader to stumble over the rest of the content. © Shutterstock.com | Robert KneschkeIn this article, we explore 1) what keywords are not about, 2) why you should spy on your competitors’ keywords, 3) effective techniques for researching and analyzing keywords your competitors are using, 4) important tools for spying on your competitors’ keywords, and 5) conclusion.WHAT KEYWORDS ARE NOT ABOUTOne of the biggest mistakes content writers or optimizers make is that they try to mislead or trick both Google Spiders and people with the help of keywords. This means repeating the keywords in your content in an unnatural manner (keyword stuffing), using keywords that don’t describe what your content is about or deploying any other black hat technique. Google is very serious about websites that use these techniques and can penalize you if you do not comply with their policies regarding the proper use of keywords.WHY SPY ON YOUR COMPETITORS’ KEYWORDS?Spying on your competitors’ keywords offers you more insights into industry trends in addition to generating more keyword ideas for yourself. It is always better to know who your main competitors are and what they are doing as it will help you get one step ahead of the competition.In the following lines, I shall explain some benefits of proper keyword research as well as some important tools and techniques to effectively spy on your competitors’ keywords.Benefits of Proper Keyword ResearchProper keyword research is necessary to propel your online business to new heights of success. Following are some of the benefits of using the right keywords in your content.Higher Search Engine Rankings: If you are looking to optimize your website for search engines, you have to identify proper and powerful keywords. It is essential for you to use the right keywords in all types of web content, whether it is a press release, a new link building campaign or content for your site’s homepage, if you want to improve your search rankings. Ranking on the first page of Google means that you will get hundreds of times more traffic and revenue.Increased Conversion Rate: The biggest advantage of using relevant keywords in relevant content is that they will bring actual customers to your website. You can easily achieve higher conversion rate if the content you provide is useful and meaningful to your visitors. As a matter of fact, using optimized keywords and relevant content dramatically enhances your chances of increasing net profits compared to other methods such as broadcast emailing.Engaged Audience: To engage your audience, you need to produce relevant content. One way to do so is to identify keywords that can drive traffic to your website. Keyword analysis is also important for finding out the topics that are popular among your audience. This will help you to write engaging content around those topics and keep your audience engaged. In fact, your visitors will keep coming back if your content can answer all their questions.Broader Targeted Audience: Target ed traffic is the first requirement for building your online customer base and increasing your profits in the process. It is fairly easy to get information about keywords which can help you reach a broader targeted audience alongside their level of competition and search volume. You need to remember that keyword research is necessary if you want to discover new business avenues.Better Insights into Marketing Trends: Keyword analysis also enables you to get better insights into marketing trends and consumer behavior. It will help you find out what is popular in the market and what you need to do to stay relevant. Keyword research will also reveal the methods your rivals use to rank high in search engines against your targeted keywords.Increased Online Visibility: Keyword research and analysis will help you achieve higher search rankings and in turn, increased online visibility. As mentioned above, you can drive considerably more traffic to your website and increase your profits if yo u manage to rank on the first page of Google. This enables you to generate more sales simply because your website is visible to more people.Cheap Organic Marketing: The best thing about keyword research is that it does not cost you a dime on most occasions. Compared to pay per click (PPC) and other types of advertisements on Google, organic search engine optimization is not only cheaper but it also helps you to get long-term and sustainable search results.EFFECTIVE TECHNIQUES FOR RESEARCHING AND ANALYZING KEYWORDS YOUR COMPETITORS ARE USINGFollowing are some of the best techniques to take a look at your competitors and what they are ranking for.Identify Your CompetitorsFirst and foremost, you have to identify your main competitors and analyze what keywords they are ranking against. This will also help you see the strategies they have put in place for search engine optimization and what their main areas of focus are in terms of paid and organic search results. It is always important to know your competitors in a fast-paced competitive environment, otherwise your chances of success are very remote.Identify Your Own KeywordsAfter identifying your competitors and keywords they are using, it is imperative for you to identify and select the keywords that have the potential to drive traffic to your website and generate more sales. My advice to you is always start with less competitive keywords because they are easy to rank for. In this regard, there are many tools you can use to identify keywords for your business, such as Google AdWords and SEMRush.Determine How Authoritative Your Competitors AreYou would normally have two to three major competitors on your radar. However, you also happen to compete with many other websites about which you have no idea. Therefore, you must identify all the websites you are competing with and determine how authoritative they are. You may not surpass large and well-established websites in Google search results against more competitive keywords in the beginning, making it necessary for you to focus your efforts on less competitive ones.Track Competitors’ Indexed PagesYou need to get as much information as possible about your competitors’ indexed pages and how powerful they are. This way you will be able to learn what type of content they produce on their pages, what methods they use to get so much public attention and how authoritative their website really is.Set up Google AlertsSetting up Google Alerts is one of the best methods to not only spy on your rivals’ keywords, but their backlinks as well. Instead of brand mentions, Google Alerts helps you track your competitors’ keywords in addition to discovering countless other keywords and phrases that may be relevant to your business. You can also measure the performance of different websites using this exceptional tool and base your future SEO campaign on these results.Check Their BacklinksBacklinks are the lifeline of any SEO campaign. You can never rank on the first page of Google unless your website has a huge number of quality backlinks. It is important for you to know where your competitors get all those backlinks from because it will help you adopt and generate new ideas for your backlink strategy. It is not very difficult to check your competitors’ backlinks either. You simply have to go through their popular posts, and you will come across many high quality and related backlinks.Spy on Their SEO and PPC CampaignsIt is of high importance for you to closely monitor all the websites of your rivals that are getting maximum traffic from Google organic search results. These are also the websites with a number of high-quality backlinks, making them extremely important for their ranking. As far as paid traffic is concerned, you have to have maximum information about the keywords they are paying for and what they are doing. I normally use tools like Ispionage to measure how effective a certain keyword is against the cost per click.W hat Is Their Unique Selling Proposition?To survive in today’s extremely competitive online marketplace, you have to have your Unique Selling Proposition (USP). In this regard, you can develop a unique voice for your brand and strong online presence by having a good idea about your competitors’ USP. You have to keep in mind that your visitors may start comparing you with your competitors if you don’t have your own USP, and in some cases they may also start saying that you are even worse.Compare Your Website with Your RivalsOne of the best methods to compete with your competitors is to compare your website and SEO strategy, including all the potential keywords you want to deploy, with your competitors. This will help you a great deal in selecting the most important keywords and prioritizing them in terms of high demand and low traffic difficulty. There are many other factors you can take into account when choosing keywords, such as relevance, current rankings, page results chara cteristics, content optimization and domain authority.Always Target Weak CompetitorsAs mentioned above, you compete with a lot of competitors at a time. Therefore, it is always wise to target weaker competitors to begin with. In order to accomplish this task successfully, you have to thoroughly analyze their online marketing strategy and identify their strengths and shortcomings, and then exploit those weaknesses as much as possible. Remember, it is extremely difficult to deprive big fish of their share right from the start. You have to be patient and take one step at a time.Constantly Revise Your StrategyNew competitors enter the market, and old ones disappear on a daily basis. It is imperative for you to constantly revise your list of competitors so that you can discover new competitive keywords and apply them successfully to drive extra traffic to your website. There is no need to reinvent the wheel. You just need to optimize the keywords the way your competitors are optimizing t hem in addition to producing relevant, creative content.IMPORTANT TOOLS FOR SPYING ON COMPETITORS’ KEYWORDSThere are many extremely helpful tools available in the market that can help you research your competitors’ keywords effectively. In fact, it is better to use the above mentioned techniques in combination with these tools for getting optimal results.Google’s AdWords Keyword Tool: Google Keyword Planner or Google Adwords is the best tool to spy on your competitors’ keywords. Although, you have to create an account to access this tool, it is totally free to use. In my opinion, it is a fantastic tool for getting some important stats like keyword difficulty level, average monthly search volume, the average cost per click and much more. Unlike some other tools on the list, this tool focuses more on your website rather than specifically focusing on competitors’ analysis.Open Site Explorer: This tool has to be outstandingly simple because it is from Moz. It is perfect for an alyzing the techniques and methods your competitors are deploying to build backlinks. One of the most popular tools with a good reputation in the market nowadays, Open Site Explorer provides you with complete information about the anchor texts they are using as well as the page rank and domain authority of the websites they are receiving backlinks from.SEMRush: I strongly recommend using SEMRush because it is a great tool when it comes to collecting competitors’ data. This very tool provides you with detailed information about all types of keywords other business have deployed in addition to their search ranking and average monthly traffic. The tool is completely free to use and provides all the necessary information in an easy to understand graphic format.Alexa: Alexa is the tool that needs no recognition. Today, it is one of the most advanced and reliable keyword analysis tools, but it has been around for years now. This tool is a must if you are looking to spy on your competito rs’ keywords, especially if you are competing at the global stage. It offers detailed information about their link building efforts, keywords, and traffic, etc.Keyword Spy: As the name suggests, Keyword Spy is a brilliant tool to literally spy on your competitors’ keywords. One of the best features of Keyword Spy is Domain Spy Tool. If you want to know the total budget your competitors have specified for PPC, you must make use of this tool. Similarly, it will also help you find out the keywords they are spending the most money on and who their major competitors are.Google Trends: This particular tool is extremely popular among online marketers and other professionals because it is free and does not require any login or sign up. It allows you to observe both short and long term trends in addition to comparing the performance of different keywords. Similarly, the tool also offers weekly updates on your priority keywords.KW Finder: Keyword finder is a relatively new tool but it has become one of my favorites. It receives monthly data both from Google Trends and Google AdWords. You can competitively analyze Top Ten search results for the last month against any keyword in addition to finding out how difficult a certain keyword is to rank against.Majestic SEO: Majestic SEO is not a free tool but one I strongly recommend, especially for competitors’ keyword research. There is a free feature called Backlink History Tool, which allows you to observe patterns in link building. You can find out when your competitors focus most on organic SEO by choosing different settings to monitor the influx of keywords at a certain time of the year.CONCLUSIONRemember that you will never be able to claim absolute victory over your competitors in the battle of keyword search and search engine rankings. However, you can remain competitive, relevant and, most importantly, profitable by applying these tips. The world of the online marketplace is constantly expanding and evolving, and if you are unable to adapt and innovate, you will never be successful and same is true with online marketing, especially search engine optimization.Finally, my advice to all of you is never rest on your laurels. You should keep abreast of the latest developments and trends in your particular niche. Always look for new keyword ideas and never stop spying on your competitors, both strong and weak. In this way, you will be able to rank higher on Google and achieve your goals in both the short and long run.

One Of The Greatest Challenges Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1908 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? One of the greatest challenges in this study was the availability of data for the SADC member countries. To efficiently model the effect that the stock market has on a countrys growth one would ideally need to have both a long time-series as well as sufficient cross- sections of data. However, the SADC region presents difficulties in that many of the regions exchanges were only recently established, and offer very little time-series data (Allen and Ndikumana, 2000:140). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "One Of The Greatest Challenges Finance Essay" essay for you Create order In what follows, section 4.1 presents the data used for the stock market development and economic growth nexus. Section 4.2 discusses the empirical method, that is, the econometric methodology, while section 4.3 presents concluding remarks. The primary data source for this study is the World Banks World Development Indicators. By being able to draw data from a single source we overcome the consistency and measurement problems associated with Levine and Zervoss (1998) use of two different data source. Also, we include several measures of stock market development (as opposed to a single composite measure used by Levine and Zervos). This more disaggregated approach is also recommended by Demirguc-Kunt and Levine (1996). Nine out of the ten SADC countries with stock exchanges have the relevant data. As such, data was obtained for the following countries: Botswana, Mauritius, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Mozambique was excluded from the regression sample due to a lack of data. The analysis covers the period from 1980 to 2011. This was grouped into eight data points based on averages of the following sub periods: 1980-1983, 1984-1987, 1988-1991, 1992-1995, 1996-1999, 2000-2003, 2004 -2007 and 2008-2011. All the sub period have four observations, which were in turn averaged to obtain the data for each sub period. However, because many of these exchanges were only recently established, many gaps were found within the data. Where less than four observations exist for a period, the available observations were averaged to obtain the data for the period. For instance, in a country if two observations were found for a sub period say 1992-1995, the average of the two is used for that period. But if only one observation is available, the only observation is used for the period. Thus, following this process we obtained a panel data of four data points for each country. This study will focus on the stock market development and growth nexus, using the real GDP growth rate as a proxy for economic growth and stock market capitalization as a percentage of GDP as a proxy for stock market development. The other variables used in the model are described as follows: GDP Growth Rate (GDP) GDP growth rate is the annual percentage growth rate of GDP at market prices based on constant local currency. It is used as the dependent variable as a proxy for economic growth. It is expected that as the stock market develops it will have a positive effect on economic growth (Mohtadi and Agarwal, 2000:9). It is expected that as the economy grows, it will produce a positive effect on the size of the stock market and as such it is also expected that the stock market will also grow (Naceur et al., 2007:482). In addition, the growth of an economy should create new demand for financial services while also offering a better business environment, thus prompting the growth of the stock market and hence a positive effect on stock market development is expected (Yartey, 2008:15). Market Capitalization Ratio (MCR) This is calculated by summing the value of all listed shares and dividing by GDP. It is assumed that the overall market size is positively correlated with the ability to mobilize capital and diversify risk on an economy-wide basis (Agarwal, 2000:50). The MCR is used as an explanatory variable. Here it is expected to have a positive effect on economic growth. Liquidity When analyzing stock market liquidity, two different indicators were used. These are: Total Value of Shares Traded Ratio (VTR): This variable equals the value of shares traded on the exchange divided by GDP (Mohtadi and Agarwal, 2000:6). This ratio is used to measure the value of equity transactions relative to the size of an economy, and as such should positively reflect liquidity on an economy-wide basis. The total value traded ratio complements the market capitalization ratio: although a market may be large, there may be little trading. We expect a positive relationship between the values of shares traded ratio and economic growth. Turnover Ratio (TR): This variable equals the value of total shares traded divided by market capitalization. That is to say it measures the value of equity transactions relative to the size of the stock market (Mohtadi and Agarwal, 2000:7). Although the turnover ratio is a measure of liquidity, high turnover may also indicate the presence of low transaction costs. The turnover ratio complements the market capitalization ratio. A large but inactive market will have a large market capitalization ratio but a small turnover ratio. Turnover also complements the total value traded ratio. While the total value traded ratio captures trading relative to the size of the economy, turnover measures trading relative to the size of the stock market. A small liquid market will have a high turnover ratio but a small total value traded ratio. As such liquid stock markets allow investors to change their financial positions relatively quickly and cheaply, while also facilitating investment projects and making them less risky (Levine, 1991:1447). Hence we expect the turnover ratio to have a positive influence in the model. Macroeconomic Instability Inflation refers to the persistent rise in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over a certain period of time. In an effort to take into account any macroeconomic instability and its effects on both economic growth and stock market development, the change in price level is used as an explanatory variable. It is expected that the higher the inflation variable, the less incentive investors or companies would have in investing in the stock market, and thus negatively affecting economic growth (Garcia and Liu, 1999:43). However, it has been noted that stock markets also provide some form of a hedge against inflation and hence one may expect a positive relationship between stock market development and inflation (Yartey, 2008:16). Therefore, it is not impossible to expect stock markets in countries with volatile macroeconomic conditions to also have volatile equity indexes and hence market capitalization (Garcia and Liu, 1999:43). Investment Gross capital formation (formerly gross domestic investment) consists of outlays on additions to the fixed assets of the economy plus net changes in the level of inventories. Gross capital formation as a percentage of GDP is used in this study as a proxy for the investment rate, and it is used as an explanatory variable because it is believed that the investment rate plays an important role in economic growth (Agarwal, 2000:51). Furthermore, since stock markets are in retrospect financial intermediaries that intermediate savings to investment projects, it is logical to expect that the investment rate will be an important determinant of stock market development. As such, we expect the investment rate to have a positive impact in the model (Yartey, 2008:16). Financial Intermediary Development As both banks and stock markets intermediate savings towards investment, they can either be seen as substitutes or complements. Numerous authors including that of Boyd and Smith (1996) and Demirguc-Kunt and Levine (1996) have addressed this issue, with the vast majority concluding that they are generally seen as complements rather than substitutes and grow simultaneously (Garcia and Liu, 1999:40). In this study we use two indicators of financial intermediary development. The first one is the private credit by deposit money banks to GDP, or simply the credit to the private sector. It refers to financial resources provided to the private sector, such as through loans, purchases of nonequity securities, and trade credits and other accounts receivable that establish a claim for repayment. It has been empirically shown by Demirguc-Kunt and Levine (1996) that stock market development and bank development are positively correlated. Secondly, liquid liabilities to GDP are used to show the ef fect the financial sector has on both growth and stock market development. Liquid liabilities are also known as M3. Liquid liabilities consist of demand deposits and interest bearing liabilities and non-bank financial intermediaries, and have been shown to have a positive impact on both economic growth and stock market development, thus we expect the same relationship to prevail (Garcia and Liu, 1999:41). 4.2 EMPIRICAL METHOD A panel data approach is employed in this study that covers nine countries within the SADC region. Specifically, the study uses a fixed effects panel data model. The fixed effects approach is relatively simple and is defined according to the following regression: Yit = i + Xit + it, i = 1, ,N; t = 1, ,Ti .. (4.1) Where Yit is the dependent variable, Xit is the vector of k explanatory variables, and i, i =1 N, are the constant coefficients that are specific to individual countries. Therefore, it is assumed that their presence allows for differences across the countries under study via any variations in these constant terms. These individual country coefficients are estimated together with the vector of slope coefficients (Naceur et al., 2007:483). Hsiao (1986) also suggested that in the scenario whereby there are some individual attributes which have been omitted and which are correlated with the other variables in the model, the fixed effects model produced unbiased estimates. As such, a panel data approach generally offers greater flexibility in the specification of the model rather than other single cross- country regressions, and hence will reduce misspecification of the model. Next we look at the model separately. 4.2.1 Model This model examines the stock market development and economic growth nexus directly. In this analysis, three regressions were estimated under different specifications in terms of their weightings. These are as follows: Yit = i + 1LMCRit+ 2INFit + 3LGCFit + 4LPCit + 5LLLit + 6GDPit-1 + it .. (4.2) Yit = i + 1LVTRit+ 2INFit + 3LGCFit + 4LPCit + 5LLLit + 6GDPit-1 + it .. (4.3) Yit = i + 1LTRit+ 2INFit + 3LGCFit + 4LPCit + 5LLLit + 6GDPit-1 + it .. (4.4) Where Y is the real per capita GDP growth rate set as a proxy for economic growth, LMCR is the market capitalization ratio, LVTR is the total value of shares traded ratio, and LTR is the turnover ratio. These ratios were run individually in the regressions, while also including other control variables that may have an impact on economic growth. Specifically, the control variables included are: the rate of inflation change (INF), the log of gross capital formation (LGCF) which was used as a proxy for the investment rate, two indicators of financial intermediary development (LPC and LLL), and while also including the lag of GDP. Furthermore, these regressions were estimated under both cross-section weights and period weights to allow for country specific heteroskedasticity and period heteroskedasticity (Eviews manual, 2008:543). 4.3 CONCLUSION This chapter discusses the data and the empirical model used for the analysis. The analysis cover the period 1980-2011 which was further divided into eight sub periods: 1980-1983,1984-1987, 1988-1991,1992-1995,1996-1999, 2000-2003, 2004-2007,2008-2011. The average of each sub periods was then obtained in order to obtain the data point for each period. The chapter further specifies the model and describes the econometric techniques used for the estimation, namely a fixed effects panel data approach. The model focuses on the relationship between stock market development and growth.

The Invention Of The Camera - 1278 Words

Photography has changed a lot since the invention of the camera. New techniques are developed as technology advances. There is also trends and styles that influence photography and its different aspects. Portraiture is perhaps one of the most seen types of photography that has been there since the beginning of the camera. Of course, portraits were first oil paintings that were used to portray a person, but photography has taken over and improved, in a way, these representations. Portraits tell us a lot about the subject in the picture and photography has made this easier and clearer with time. At first glance a portrait can be seen as just a picture of a person, but when taking the time to analyze the image we can discover many clues of the person’s identity. Portraits in history have been mainly used to represent people of power or those who had the money to have themselves painted by an artist. But we can now see this has changed. We can see that there is a certain element of narcissism when someone takes a picture of us as we often say â€Å"I don’t like it, delete it and let’s take another one†. Perhaps this has changed portraits and led into the creation of what we call ‘selfies’. Today almost everyone has the access to cameras which makes it simpler to take a self-portrait. It is true that many people use this technique, but the main group that uses this term and kind of photography are teenagers. To see how the purpose of portraits has changed we have to look at theShow MoreRelatedThe Invention Of The First Rotating Camera1216 Words   |  5 PagesSome of the first films were produced in the 1890s. They were under one minute and did not have sound until after 1927. What started out as a novelty is now a huge industry. Panning shots came about with the invention of the first rotating camera in 1897. Most films during these early years were called chase films. Starting in 1899, animation in movies was born. 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TerraCog Free Essays

Terracotta management failed to respond to competition in its market. Although competitor introduced a new GAPS with satellite imagery to the market, Terracotta team dismissed the threat and decided not to take a responsive action. However, quickly the new GAPS succeed and gained a significant market share. We will write a custom essay sample on TerraCog or any similar topic only for you Order Now Eventually, Terracotta president decided to pursue a development of a directly competing product, and named the project Aerial. Unfortunately, the projected high costs of this project questioned its profitability and doubt its wisdom. The key managers of the company were not able to decide whether to execute the project or not, and Emma Richardson, the new executive vice-president, needed to push the group toward a decision. The analysis we have done indicates that Terracotta case is an outcome of two major problems. The first problem is the existence of a poor decision making process, and the second is the lack of departmental cooperation and harmony. Alternative Courses of Action: We believe that Richardson should postpone the launch of Aerial, and focus on creating a more efficient decision making process and increasing departmental cooperation. Since time is crucial in this case, we see a need to decrease the time of decision making process and re-defining communication channels between the departments. We also argue that the size of this team as well as the fact that the teammates came from four different departments created complex communication channels that slowed down decision making. In this case, small groups can undertake better the urgent tasks. Hence, we think that Richardson should break the complex process of launching a new product into micro-processes. We believe that by brainstorming with the heads of every department separately, defining criteria and performance tankards, and listening to each team’s requirements and reservations, Richardson will be able to clarify for the teams their importance to the company and motivate them to act toward the company’s goal. Commitment to a common goal is more easily achieved if the number of team members is small (Essentials for an Effective Team, To keep the work on track and to increase departmental cooperation, 2006). Richardson should conduct update meetings every other week with all the departments’ heads. The agenda of these wide department meetings should be clear and exclude decisions making. The different decisions should be made within smaller groups that include only the relevant teams. To increase harmony among the departments, Richardson can open department wide meetings with a short speech about similar past experiences of the company to remind the teams how they worked well together and performed successfully when they cooperated. Recalling past experiences may increase sense of belonging and help to put the big picture in mind before discussing current issues. Moreover, Richardson can invite the teams’ mangers to have lunch together before department wide meetings. Socializing with each other right before getting to business can cool things down, ease the tension, and increase departmental cooperation. We believe that if the heads of the different departments will understand the importance and the needs of other departments, working together will become easier and more efficient. Another way to increase departmental cooperation is by sharing information on the processes each department went through. For example, while discussing the price of a new product, Tony could provide specific details regarding production’s costs to explain why further lowering of costs is impossible. While this alternative might be time consuming, sharing information can help the teams to understand better the different points of view of the different departments. Recommended Course of Action: We believe that a combination of the alternatives above would be the best way to address the situation in this case. First, we recommend postponing the launch of the current prototype. Launching Aerial on its current form will damage the company’s reputation and can lead the company to a big loss. We assume that if Aerial wont provide its users a significant advantage, customers wouldn’t pay more than the Bird’s price to buy it. Second, in order to accelerate the decision making process, Richardson should redesign the current communication channels in the company. Decisions need to be made in smaller teams, and wide department meetings need to be designated for updates only. Third, to increase departmental cooperation and harmony, Richardson should establish a process of sharing information between the departments. Furthermore, structuring time for socializing can ease the stress and increase harmony among the departments. We believe that this alternative course of action will lead to minimum damage in Terracotta position, ND allow the company to improve its productivity and ability to respond faster to competition in the future. Implementation: First, Richardson should invite all the people who were present in the last two meetings to announce her decision. This meeting should be friendly and short, and most important, clear and motivating. Richardson should open the meeting with demonstrating an appreciation for the hard work done by all the departments. Then, the announcement of her decision to postpone the launch of Aerial should be followed by a short explanation about the upcoming changes: From now on, once a week, every department should email a rife description of the progress they made at the past week to the entire company. This weekly update emails will enable an efficient way to share information between the departments. In addition, wide department meetings will take place every other week, and once a month these meetings will include a friendly lunch prior to the meeting. After the meeting, Richardson should meet with the heads of design and development department. In this meeting, they need to agree and define the requirements to develop a product that is superior to the Birds, on minimum costs and time, and draw a realistic schedule to move forward. Now, when the new product is in its first stages of creation, and there is a general idea of what specifications and characteristics it will have, as well as an expected time for launching, Richardson should meet with the UP of Sales, to create marketing plan for the new product. The production team will work alone on costs estimating for the new product, and the sales team in consultation with finance department will determine a pricing and develop a â€Å"go- to market† plan. Moreover, Richardson should set clear limits to the continuance of commitment to the project for every department. Determining what criteria and performance standards Justify continued investment in the project can help the team avoid escalation of commitment (Team Decision Making Pitfalls and Solutions, n. D). Whenever disagreements on to what level the teams should commit to a specific task will arose, they could refer to the performance’s standards and make a decision accordingly. The process will be managed by Richardson from the top, and the heads of every department will make decisions that are relevant to their departments’ areas of knowledge and responsibility, and report to Richardson, who ill manage the whole process. How to cite TerraCog, Papers

Strategic Management and Planning Nonprofit Organization †Free Sampl

Question: Disuss about the Strategic Management Nonprofit Organization. Answer: Introduction A not-for-profit or nonprofit organization refers to one which does not earn profits for its owners (Bahnson, McAllister Miller, 2008). This is to say that all the money earned by or donated to the organization is utilized in pursuance of the organizations goals and keeping it functional. Not-for-profit organizations are generally charities or other forms of public service organizations. Notably, for an organization to be considered as a not-for-profit, it must further scientific, charitable, educational, public safety, cruelty prevention, literary, or religious purposes or causes (Amit Zott, 2012). It is quite unfortunate to learn that many individuals who are not involved with nonprofit organizations do not acknowledge the significance of such organizations to the total operation of a countrys economy. To many, these organizations are simply little entities that exist in their own separated corner of the economy. Not-for-profits tend to serve one major purpose which is to better the world while zeroing out their books (Bahnson, McAllister Miller, 2008). They are considered a reliable source of employment despite what some people might believe. Recent statistics indicated that an estimated 10 million individuals were employed in the nonprofit industry in 2010, this being about 10% of the overall employment in America. By providing workers with a stable source of income, nonprofit organizations, similar to for-profit ones, indirectly motivate continuous other facets of a nations economy (Wing, 2010). Brief economic impact research shows the vital value of not-for-profits in any given economy. The employment offered helps in sustaining the economy in a similar manner as for-profit organizations would. Even though nonprofits tend to have distinct missions, they all share similar overall purpose. Notably, they allow individuals to collaborate and join resources so as to attain common objectives and goals. One of the main reasons why people start not-for-profits is to work on social issues or react to the various needs in their communities (Fleishman, 2009). Background to the Situation Recently, the wife of Bill Gates, Microsoft founder attended a Conference where various aid delivery, information technology, education and engineering companies presented their products which would be utilized in the growth of infrastructure in developing nations. Melissa Gates and Pricilla Chan, wife of Chan Zuckerberg, were particularly interested in the stabilization of developing areas and enablement of Project Loon as a technique of advancing these nations and spreading knowledge (Cordes Steuerle, 2009). Following this Conference, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, and the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative are in need of strategic advice for the establishment of a permanent aid delivery corporation. Before venturing on this particular business, a number of considerations need to be looked at, and create an organization that is able to meet the current Chan directive and any future requirements in illness and flood stricken regions, or areas that are disadvantaged by years of economic denial or warfare. Some of these considerations include having a mission statement, what type of corporation it will be, the fiscal sponsorship that will jump start the corporation, the name, and who will do the work in terms of autonomous contractors, volunteers, and employees. The corporation that has been proposed will be named the StratSynth Group and will be funded by the Giving Pledge. Its main mission will be to enable the acquisition, delivery and operation of essential life support items (Acton, Fagan Mamano, 2012). Additionally, its initial goal will be to address the East African Drought Crisis, publicly. As indicated, the main concentration of the corporation will be toward the establis hment of long term recovery and rehabilitation for stricken countries. To determine the success of this newly established corporation, it is important to look at the various internal and external factors that are bound to influence or affect the organizations performance. These factors include political, environmental, technological, and legal factors. Porters five forces analysis will also be looked at in relation to this particular venture. PESTEL Analysis describing the business landscape upon which StratSynth will operate Political factors It is important to consider the impact that political factors may have on future corporations profitability as social welfare policies, government stability, international trade regulations, and taxation policies may contribute greatly to the organizations profits (Baligh, 2011). For nonprofit organizations such as StratSynth that will provide community growth services in developing nations, government stability is a main issue to consider in the continuous provision of future services. Taxation policies, on the other hand, may have a positive or negative impact on the possibility of donors regularly donating and on the corporation gaining new donors. Economic factors These factors can have a huge impact on the need for services or donations business cycles. Moreover, money supply, inflation and cost of living, GNP trends, disposable income levels, and unemployment trends are quite relevant in assessing economic factors likely to impact a not-for-profit organization (Bahnson, McAllister Miller, 2008). For instance, a reduction in disposable income would mean a reduction in memberships and donations. With regards to StratSynth, increased unemployment rates may result in increased need for aid. The organization may also need to research increased funding which may be rather hard to obtain. Socioeconomic factors Keeping in mind StratSynth is a corporation that will be based in East Africa, social mobility, population demographics, consumerism, levels of education, lifestyle transformations, and attitudes towards leisure and work are some of the socioeconomic factors that may influence the macro-environment that StratSynth will operate (Amit Zott, 2012). It should be noted that such impact tends to differ in each nonprofit organization. Technological factors Government spending on study, novel discoveries, the focus on technological effort, rates of obsolescence, and speed of transfer are some of the technological factors that may affect StratSynth (Wing, 2010). For this particular organization, it may mean that new techniques of attracting donors, advocators, and volunteers need to be found via the use of social media such as Facebook and Twitter. It will also mean providing adequate training to its staff to ensure competence in handling technology. StratSynth needs to investigate the impact that technology will have on its operations, and conduct an assessment of the current technology items owned by the corporation. Environmental factors Developing nations tend to experience various hardships in terms of the environment, for instance pollution and wastemanagement issues. StratSynth needs to be aware of the fact that environmental protection laws, energy consumption and waste disposal are at the core of the factors to be considered when evaluating the business environment (Fleishman, 2009). Legal factors It is quite possible for one or two individuals to sue the organization. Therefore, StratSynth should consider possible court cases that may impact it, tax laws, and proposed laws (Cordes Steuerle, 2009). The corporation should also note that laws in the developing nations might be slightly different from those of the developed world. Five Forces Analysis of the likely competitors to StratSynth In his Five Forces model, Michael Porter cites that competition is not about which organization is the biggest, but rather, who is the most profitable. This model has been quite relevant for profitable organizations and that is why most people do not see its relevance in nonprofits. With regards to the bargaining power of service providers, they tend to gain more authority as their services become core to the organizations vision and mission (Acton, Fagan Mamano, 2012). The buyers or grantmakers in this case, are considered to be the social impact provided by StratSynth. If they are able to get a superior product from a competing corporation, they will eventually purchase their vision or mission instead. Referring to the competitive rivalry, it is interesting to note that there are about 1.5 million nonprofits in America today (Baligh, 2011). There are also various organizations in East Africa providing similar service to the needy population. That is why StratSynth must establish an effective leadership that understands the competition or gap in this particular market. Threat of substitution refers to how likely a grantmaker or community member will shift to StratSynths competitor. If shifting costs are lower and similar corporations exist in East Africa, then StratSynth may be facing a grim threat of substitution. Given the presence of donor loyalty or high fixed costs, the threat of novel entrants can be restricted (Bahnson, McAllister Miller, 2008). However, if the demand for StratSynths service is high and fixed costs are low, it may be successful in entering the East African market. The business level resources and capabilities required for the StratSynth mission Gates and Chan need to note that a not-for-profit organization tends to lack the fiscal flexibility of a commercial organization given that it relies on resource providers that are not participating in an exchange transaction (Amit Zott, 2012). These providers are oriented towards provision of services or goods to a client other than the real resource provider. Cashmanagement and budgeting will be the two main areas of fiscalmanagement that will be significant to this particular organization. Gates and Chan need to note that it is often quite hard to remain focused on the organizations mission to assist in solving social ills, as short term fiscal considerations of budget balancing and fundraising might take focus away from attaining the corporations mission. Five organizations with the resources and capabilities with which StratSynth may engage using Corporate Level Strategies Corporate level strategies are all about the choosing andmanagement of a combination of businesses which are competing in various product markets or industries (Wing, 2010). A corporate level strategy is significant in that without it, it is impossible for any given organization to have long term plan or technique to attain goals or objectives. Having a corporate level strategy would mean StratSynth concentrating multiple resources on a specific goal. Additionally, for the organization to succeed in its endeavors, it needs to consider the inclusion of other organizations with similar goals and which have also successfully implemented their strategies. Five organizations with capabilities and resources with which StratSynth may engage are Africare, The Carter Center, Oxfam International, The Rockefeller Foundation, and the Catholic Medical Mission Board. Africare is concerned with helping Africans in areas such as environmental health, water, private sector development, emergency humanitarian assistance, and food (Fleishman, 2009). The Carter Center is committed to human rights and the mitigation of peoples suffering. This organization aims at preventing and resolving disagreements, improving health, and encouraging liberty and democracy. Oxfam International is committed to establishing long term solutions to poverty, hunger, and social injustice through lasting partnerships with poverty stricken communities across the globe (Cordes Steuerle, 2009). On the other hand, the Rockefeller Foundation is a worldwide organization focused on enriching and sustaining the livelihoods and lives of the poor and neglected individuals across the globe. Catholic Medical Mission Board would be quite handy for StratSynth in that it is an organization providing medical supplies and medicines free of charge to partner organizations internationally (Act on, Fagan Mamano, 2012). It also delivers medical supplies to individuals residing in poverty stricken conditions and those who do not have any hope of receiving even the basic medical care. All these organizations would be very helpful to the proposed nonprofit given their missions and objectives. For Africare and The Carter Center, a joint venture would be the most appropriate strategy for StratSynth. Implementation of equity alliance would be suitable for the Rockefeller Foundation, and Oxfam International, where the nonprofit will enjoy equal benefits and services provided. On the other hand, the recommended implementation strategy for the Catholic Medical Mission Board would be the nonequity alliance (Baligh, 2011). Melinda Gates interests in the firms producing the Pouncer Drone, the Spider Light Strike Vehicle and the Rokon two wheel drive motorcycle, and advice on whether these firms should be included in the cooperative strategic relationships The firms that Melinda Gates is interested in should be incorporated in the cooperative strategic relationships as they will guarantee speedy delivery of the services the organization is offering. Furthermore, the drought affected regions in East Africa do not have sufficient or effective means of transportation. This means that relief food rarely reaches this needy population. However, by adapting the firms manufacturing the Spider Light Strike Vehicle, the Rokon two wheel drive motocycle, and Pouncer Drone, the nonprofit will succeed in delivering its services to these remote regions, thus saving lives (Bahnson, McAllister Miller, 2008). Organizational structure for a six (6) person Synstrat Headquarters group, including a brief role statement and rationale for each individual employed A six person organizational structure that would be applicable to the Synstrat Headquarters group would be the Board of Directors, the Managing Director, the financial manager, a supervisor, human resource, and volunteers or employees. The Board is responsible for making planning and guidance decisions while the manager maintains relations with the organizations stakeholders and other contributors/fundraisers. S/he will also control the resources. The financial manager will be in charge of budgeting and controlling of funds for the organization. The supervisor will not only serve as the backbone of the organization, but will collaborate with the manager in putting plans into action (Amit Zott, 2012). The Human Resource will be in charge of recruiting staff while the volunteers or employees will be individuals working to fulfill the organizations goals and objectives. Volunteers or Employees A vision and mission statement for the Synstrat Group, including a positioning statement defining the cooperative stance of Synstrat with other similarly aligned organizations As already indicated, the main vision and mission statement for the Synstrat Group is to be able to acquire, deliver, and operate essential life support items. This means that it will provide the necessary equipment and items needed by the ravaged community in East Africa. On the other hand, the Groups positioning statement will be to create awareness of what is taking place with the East African Drought Crisis. Positioning statements are significant in determining how a given product and/or service will be positioned in a given market. References Acton, D.D., Fagan, C., Mamano, K. (2012). Planning for a not-for-profit combination: Insight into federal, state, and funding considerations. The CPA Journal. Pp. 64 67. Ambos, B., Shclegelmilch, B. (2007). Innovation and control in the multinational firm: A comparison of political and contingency approaches. Strategic Management Journal, 28(5). Pp. 473 486. Amit, R., Zott, C. (2012). Creating value through business model innovation. MIT Sloan Management Review. Pp. 41 49. Bahnson, P.R., McAllister, B.P., Miller, P.B.W. (2008). Noncontrolling interest: Much more than a name change. Journal of Accountancy. Pp. 46 53. Bahnson, P.R., McAllister, B.P., Miller, P.B.W. (2008). Noncontrolling interest: Much more than a name change. Journal of Accountancy. Pp. 46 53. Baligh, H.H. (2011). Theory and design, analysis and Prescription. New York: Springer. Chell, E. (2007). Social enterprise and entrepreneurship. International Small Business Journal, 25(1). Pp. 5 26. Cordes, J.J., Steuerle, E.C., eds. (2009). Nonprofits and business. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Press. Ekmekjian. (2012). The need for hybrid businesses: Examining low-profit limited liability companies and benefit corporations. The CPA Journal. Pp. 48 53. Fleishman, J.L. (2009). The foundation: How private wealth is changing the world. New York: PublicAffairs. Wing, K.T. (2010). The nonprofit sector in brief: Public charities, giving, and volunteering. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Press.